Philosophical Methods

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Philosophers try to know the nature of things by using some of the following techniques:

• Looking carefully at phenomena

This may seem obvious, but actually seeing and carefully noticing some phenomena, whether in nature, human affairs, language, etc., requires deliberate attention. Philosophers of all ages value careful observation, but specific methods used in philosophy include scientific observation and phenomenological description.

• Fundamental focus on argument

Rationales (arguments and explanations) are the most basic materials of philosophical arguments. Stating someone's rationales and point of view accurately is basic work in philosophy. Once articulated, rationales can be evaluated by questioning the truth of their premises, questioning the connection between the premises and the conclusion, or questioning the whole framework for the argument (including, for example, presuppositions). It is important to think of philosophers as people who ask "Why" questions and rationales (both arguments and explanations) as answers.

• Defining terms

You cannot always define your terms precisely at the beginning of an inquiry, but you should always be checking the way you use terms as you start to clarify your views.

Additional concepts: Lexical definitions, Necessary and sufficient conditions in definitions.

• Questioning presuppositions

All rationales involve premises which themselves depend upon other claims that are assumed within the rationale. While presuppositions are inevitable, philosophers like to articulate them to make them explicit and then question some of them if they appear unfounded or weak in some way.

• Distinguishing senses

Part of a process of definition, we distinguish senses when we notice either that we are using a word in different ways within a rationale (technically, the fallacy of equivocation) or when we notice that some principle or rationale is stronger or weaker depending upon the sense or meaning give to key terms.

• Discovering entailments

When two claims are connected in such a way that the truth of the first claim guarantees the truth of the second, you have an entailment relationship. (Think of Modus Ponens, for example.) Philosophers look for entailment relationships because they can be fit to a deductive model of reasoning, which carries the possibility of certain demonstration.

• Fitting principles to cases

Philosophy sometimes involves working from an initial intuition about a principle (e.g. "It is never right to lie.") and then looking at actual cases and deciding whether and how to "tailor" the principle to the cases which it "fits." This adjustment process can involve distinguishing senses, definition terms more precisely or looking for counter examples.

• Discovering ignorance

We tend to think of inquiry as fruitful only when it produces positive results, but Socrates reminds us that the "discovery of ignorance" is itself a useful result. Often the reasons arguments or theories fail give you insights into a better theory.

• Discovering limits of knowledge

Every kind and item of knowledge has a domain of applicability. This method is used to find those limits and consider what makes a method of knowing applicable to some object or situation.

• Theorizing from conceptual considerations

Sometimes philosophers argue for or against a new concept or theory by showing its fit or lack of fit some existing body of concepts.

• Theorizing from current and new knowledge

Philosophy is deeply shaped by the very same fields of knowledge that it helped develop! New work in neuroscience has completely changed the traditional field of "philosophy of mind."

• Maintaining logical consistency / searching out inconsistency

• Acknowledging logical possibility

• Searching for counter-examples

• Searching for necessity

• Using thought experiments

Thought experiments are fictional scenarios which highlight a principle or argument in a novel way. By our responses to a thought experiment, we might question or reinforce some intuition or hypothesis we have.

• Dialectic -- logic in process....

Dialectics refers to the method of argument in which a dialogue exists between two or more people, with the goal of discovering the truth

This method was made famous by Plato... Some examples are

1. Plato's Meno - in which Socrates discusses aspects of human virtue with Meno

2. Plato's Symposium - in which Socrates, and many others, discuss Love

3. Plato's Phaedo - in which Socrates discusses the immortality of the soul

--Lars